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.R.Dee, 1993); Rosalind Williams, Dream40111 Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth Century France (Berkeley, CA:1 University of California Press, 1982); Peter N.Stearns, Fat History: Bodies2 and Beauty in the Modern West (New York: New York University Press,3 1997); Bonnie Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class: The Bourgeoises of Northern44111 France in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 78 The emergence of consumerism in the West1981).On objections to consumerism, particularly between the world wars:Victoria de Grazia, Culture of Consent: Mass Organization of Leisure in FascistItaly (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Victoria de Graziawith Ellen Furlough, The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in HistoricalPerspective (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996); MartinDaunton and Matthew Hilton, The Politics of Consumption: Material Cultureand Citizenship in Europe and America (New York: Berg Press, 2001); MatthewHilton, Consumerism in Twentieth-Century Britain (New York: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2003); and Gary Cross, Time and Money: the Making ofConsumer Culture (London: Routledge, 1993). Part I11111Consumerism goes global23456789101112311 The elements of consumerism that had existed in pre-modern societies obvi-4 ously had a global context.Pre-modern consumerism had developed more5 extensively in China and the Middle East than in Western Europe, before6 the modern centuries.It also depended heavily on international trade for7 example, on Chinese silks.This section returns to world history, this time8 for modern consumerism.9 Western consumerism had itself depended heavily on global context.It20111 had been stimulated in part by access to new goods from other parts of1 the world: sugar, silk, Indian cotton.It depended also on the profits from2 world trade, including the slave trade, which had fed not only goods but3 money into Western Europe and North America.Additional production4 supplied Western consumerism by the nineteenth century: for example,5 production of Middle Eastern ( oriental ) carpets accelerated rapidly to meet6 the demands of European and American households.But the full world7 history of modern consumerism also involves the spread of consumer styles8 and interests from the West to other places.Dissemination to the Americas9 was an early part of this process.Elements of consumerism sometimes,30111 to be sure, superficial elements often formed part of initial reactions to1 new Western contacts such was the case with Japan by the 1870s, for2 instance.The worldwide spread of modern consumerism, and limitations3 and special adaptations within this process, form the core of the chapters4 that follow.5 Chapters in this section deal with the spread of modern consumerism6 to societies in Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America.The time7 period ranges from the early nineteenth century, when Western forms of8 consumerism first made serious contact with a wider orbit, to the later9 twentieth century.40111 Some of the reasons for the spread of consumerism are fairly obvious.1 As Western contacts proliferated through growing trade and colonialism,2 Western businessmen and diplomats themselves modeled aspects of con-3 sumerism to other peoples.They were not fully comfortable without at44111 least elements of behaviors common back home.The spread of Western 80 Consumerism goes globaltourism, more recently, has had a similar impact.There was also the desireto sell or cajole: persuading other people to be open to new forms of con-sumerism brought the promise of larger markets for Western-made goodsand for easier acceptance of colonial rule.Domestic components entered aswell.Some societies already had certain elements of consumer interest in varied and colorful clothing for example.China was a case in point here.Almost all societies relied on material distinctions as markers of socialstatus, and consumerism might fit in here.And finally, consumerism couldserve to cushion or legitimate other kinds of social and economic change,as had been the case in the West itself.But consumerism did not spread evenly or uniformly.A combination ofconvergence and differentiation is crucial to the chapters that follow.Somesocieties were readier for consumerism than others, and variations of thissort raise obvious questions of causation.Different kinds of resistance devel-oped as well, which can be compared additionally to reactions in the Westitself.This section deals with a number of instances of consumerism, eachwith its own timing and flavor.While there is no effort to cover all majorsocieties, the range of historical experiences will be clear.Expanding global consumerism, in other words, had some commonelements, including examples, products, and marketing methods spreadingfrom the West.But outside influence was encountered in various ways.Prior traditions played a key role; not surprisingly, at least temporary resist-ance to consumerism was clearest in cases where a strong, preconsumeristideology maintained vigorous hold
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