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.Because the packet lines specialized in carrying freight andthe nonpacket ships still carried some freight to Europe, however, theimmigrants who wished to sail to the United States found it easiest toarrange passage in the ports where these ships arrived.Given that theUnited States shipped cotton to Liverpool and Le Havre and tobacco toBremen, these three ports became the major embarkation ports for theUnited States.31Between 1836 and 1853 in my samples of Germans immigrating to the United States,30% left from Le Havre, 21% from Bremen, 10% direct from Hamburg, 10%fromLiverpool, 5% from London, and the remainder from a Dutch or Belgium port.ManyScandinavians also crossed the North Sea to England and left from Liverpool.32The information in the remainder of this paragraph is from Tipton, Government, pp.118 22.33Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, Table 5.1, p.316. The Trip from Europe to the United States 137From the perspective of an emigrant, the trip to the embarkation portwas shortest for the British and longest for the Germans.In the formercase, individuals might travel only a day or two to reach Liverpool,whereas Germans in the 1830s had a trip of at least two weeks, andoften much longer, to a coastal port.The Irish trip was seldom longerthan one week.Thus, as discussed in Chapter 5, German immigrants hadlarger forgone income that had to be overcome, a factor that contributedto the higher skill level of the German immigrant stream.34 Over time,the German trip became shorter as internal transportation improved dueto the introduction of steamships on the rivers, road improvements inGermany and France, and the building of the railroads.Waits at theembarkation ports also lessened for the Germans in the 1830s when shipsbegan announcing their departure date.35 By the end of the antebellumperiod, therefore, the difference in travel times to the embarkation portshad become smaller for immigrants from the different countries.Estimates of Mortality on the Ships and After ArrivalThe immigrant faced a long journey once aboard the sailing ship.Theaverage length of the voyage was about forty-four days to New York,although some ships sailing from Liverpool arrived in thirty-five days.36The occasional ship could arrive even quicker, or the voyage could runinto calm wind conditions and be delayed for a number of weeks.Duringthe typical month and a half voyage, of course, some individuals woulddie.The general belief, which is supported by the analysis presented here,is that the mortality suffered during the voyage exceeded what wouldhave been experienced had the individuals not taken the trip.This sectionexamines the entire issue of mortality on immigrant ships, discussing howmany people died, how that number compared to the death rate amongnontravelers, which immigrants were most likely to die, and why thedeaths occurred.34A formal discussion of this point is presented in Chiswick, Are Immigrants, p.65,who concludes that the larger are the out-of-pocket costs of migration.the greater isthe propensity for favorable selectivity in migration. Chiswick s conclusion is based onthe typical human-capital model used in this book, where individuals migrate because ofincome differentials.35Moltmann, Pattern, p.19.36Page, Transportation, p.737, gives an average of 44.25 days for sailing ships arrivingin 1867.An average of 44.3 days can be calculated from data on ships arriving atQuebec between 1841 and 1855.See Eltis, Free and Coerced Transatlantic Migrations, Table 2, p.271.Also, see the discussion in Cohn, Mortality, p.294. 138 Mass Migration Under SailThe literature on immigrant mortality provides a wide range of esti-mates about its size.In many cases, the impression is that the conditionsfaced by immigrants waiting for the ships and then onboard were terribleand resulted in very high mortality.For example, Wittke says that mor-tality on the immigrant ships was comparable to
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